The egregious practice of legalized and non-legalized Forced and Coerced Sterilization (FCS) has been perpetrated against Indigenous Peoples in Canada in both historical and modern times. FCS refers to any form of sexual sterilization without free, informed, or voluntary consent. The practice of FCS has roots in racism, colonialism, and eugenics. (Stote 2012; Leason 2021; Clarke 2021)
Colonial ideologies, policies, and structures reflected deeply engrained racism by targeting Indigenous Peoples and considering them culturally and racially inferior (Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak 2004; Stote 2012; McLaren 1990). The emergence of eugenics was informed by racism and perpetuated by colonial governmental bodies (Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak 2004; Stote 2012; McLaren 1990). Eugenics, a term coined by Sir Francis Galton in 1883, refers to beliefs or practices which aim to “improve” the genetic quality of human populations through selective breeding (Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak 2004; Stote 2012; McLaren 1990). This ideology assumes that undesirable characteristics such as disabilities, mental illness, alcoholism, poverty, and poor moral behaviour are hereditary, and therefore could be reduced by limiting the reproductive power of populations who exhibit these traits (Stote 2012; Clarke 2021). There were two dominant forms of eugenics: positive and negative. Positive eugenics encouraged the procreation of populations viewed as having desirable characteristics through financial incentives, whereas negative eugenics discouraged the procreation of populations viewed as having undesirable characteristics through sterilization (Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak 2004).
The effects of FCS are devastating and cannot be overstated. However, there is little evidence detailing the profound impact of this practice on Indigenous people in Canada (Government of Canada 2013). The repercussions of FCS extend to every facet of life, including physical, emotional, social, and cultural traumas. Survivors recount not only enduring the physical trauma of FCS but also grappling with profound bodily changes such as early menopause as a result (Government of Canada 2013). They also report experiencing overwhelming pain, fear, shame, anxiety, depression, and suicidal thoughts. The aftermath of trauma stemming from FCS is a deep-seated distrust of the healthcare system among Indigenous people, which can further contribute to pervasive health inequities (Government of Canada 2013; Stote 2012) Beyond the individual, FCS can hinder relationships within families, communities, and cultures. The inability to conceive has impacted current and future intimate relationships between survivors and their partners (Government of Canada 2013). It also affects bonding between parent and child (Government of Canada 2013). Moreover, FCS strikes at the vital links between an individual, their community and culture. Indigenous communities are based on a matriarchal structure and represent crucial pillars of support (Government of Canada 2013). However, the inability to conceive not only diminishes the available community support systems such as connections with revered Elders, but also symbolizes the deliberate erasure of Indigenous lineages through forced genocide (Government of Canada 2013). As such, the consequences of FCS extend throughout generations and perpetuate a legacy of unimaginable pain and cultural loss.
The practice of FCS among Indigenous Peoples in Canada represents a grave violation of human rights, rooted in historical injustices, and perpetuated by contemporary healthcare inequities. To address this important issue, urgent and comprehensive reforms are required. These reforms can include imposing criminal penalties on perpetrators, mandating training on Indigenous rights for healthcare professionals, and empowering Indigenous people.
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “Indian Act,” February 7, 2006. Accessed January 02, 2024.
Sources: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “Eugenics in Canada,” February 7, 2006.
McLaren, Angus. Our Own Master Race; Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945. University of Toronto Press 1990. Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945 on JSTOR.
Duncan Campbell Scott was quoted as saying. “I want to get rid of the Indian problem. I do not think as a matter of fact, that the country ought to continuously protect a class of people who are able to stand alone… Our objective is to continue until there is not a single Indian in Canada that has not been absorbed into the body politic and there is no Indian question, and no Indian Department.”
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “Racial Segregation of Indigenous Peoples in Canada,” May 1, 2021. Accessed January 02, 2024. Racial Segregation of Indigenous Peoples in Canada | The Canadian Encyclopedia
W.L Lochhead introduced the readers of the Canadian Bookman to the science of genetics meant to improve human reproduction.
Source: McLaren, Angus. Our Own Master Race; Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945. University of Toronto Press 1990. Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945 on JSTOR.
Indigenous Peoples Classified as “Mentally Unfit”
Alberta Sexual Sterilization Act
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “Sterilization of Indigenous Women in Canada,” April 17, 2019. Accessed on January 02, 2024.https://www.thecanadianencyclo... Grekul, Jana. “Sterilization in Alberta, 1928 to 1972: Gender Matters*.” Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne De Sociologie 45, no. 3 (August 1, 2008): 247–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-618x.2008.00014.x. Clarke, Erin. 2021. "Indigenous Women and the Risk of Reproductive Healthcare: Forced Sterilization, Genocide, and Contemporary Population Control." Journal of human rights and social work 6 (2): 144-147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-020-00139-9.
British Columbia Sterilization Act
Although records of sterilizations performed under this act were destroyed or lost, it is estimated that approximately 200 to 400 individuals were sterilized. Indigenous people were among this figure.
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “Sterilization of Indigenous Women in Canada,” April 17, 2019. Accessed on January 02, 2024.https://www.thecanadianencyclo....
Consent for Sterilization
Consent for sterilization was only obtained in 17 per cent of cases for Indigenous peoples, as more than 77 per cent were considered “mentally defective” and therefore their consent was not required.
Source: Grekul, Jana, Arvey Krahn, and Dave Odynak. “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble‐minded’: Eugenics in Alberta, Canada, 1929–1972.” Sociology Lens 17, no. 4 (December 2004): 358–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6443.2004.00237.x.
Lobbying for Medical Act Amendment
Doctors lobbied for the amendment to the Medical Act, to protect those who performed sterilization (a widespread provincial practice) from any legal action.
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650.McConnachie, “Science and Ideology,” 236-37.
Non-legal Sterilizations
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650.McConnachie, “Science and Ideology,” 236-37.
Department of Indian Affairs and Consent
Source: Correspondence between the Department of Indian Affairs and the Eugenics Board (Eugenics Board meeting no. 83, May 31, 1937) cited in Grekul, “The Social Construction of the Feebleminded Threat,” 156.
The Sixties Scoop
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “Sixties Scoop,” June 22, 2016. Accessed on January 2, 2024. https://www.thecanadianencyclo....
Forced Birth Evacuations
Source: Silver, Hilah, Iván Sarmiento, Juan Pimentel, Richard Budgell, Anne Cockcroft, Zoua M. Vang, and Neil Andersson. “Childbirth Evacuation among Rural and Remote Indigenous Communities in Canada: A Scoping Review.” Women and Birth 35, no. 1 (February 1, 2022): 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.womb....
Sterilizations of Indigenous Peoples
Source: Leason, Jennifer. “Forced and Coerced Sterilization of Indigenous Women.” Canadian Family Physician 67, no. 7 (July 1, 2021): 525–27. https://doi.org/10.46747/cfp.6707525.
Allegations of Sterilizations
Member of Parliament David Lewis alleged that the Department of Health was facilitating the Forced and Coerced Sterilization of Indigenous women.
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “Sterilization of Indigenous Women in Canada,” April 17, 2019. https://www.thecanadianencyclo....
Allegations of Sterilizations
Source: Eayrs, J, “Sterilization of Eskimos,” April 1, 1973 (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, NWT), Transcript, RG 29, LAC.
Allegations of Sterilizations
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650
Parliamentary Inquiry
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650
Sterilization of Indigenous women in Northern Settlements
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650
Sterilization of Indigenous Women
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650.
Sterilization of Indigenous Men
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650.
Hospital Sterilizations
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650.
The White Paper
Source: “The White Paper - British Columbia - An Untold History,” n.d. https://bcanuntoldhistory.knowledge.ca/1960/the-white-paper.
Omnibus Criminal Reform Bill
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “History of Birth Control in Canada,” February 1, 2021. Accessed on January 02, 2024. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/history-of-birth-control-in-canada. Canadian Centre for Bio-Ethical Reform. “History of Abortion Law in Canada - Canadian Centre for Bio-Ethical Reform,” January 29, 2020. https://www.endthekilling.ca/c....
The Red Paper
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “Citizens Plus (The Red Paper),” March 16, 2023. Accessed on January 2, 2024.https://www.thecanadianencyclo....
Statement by Deputy Minister of Medical Services
M.L Webb made a statement which recognized that the Department of Medical Services did not have population figures for northern areas of Canada. This was because there were no statistics which existed for many hospitals in the Northern Territories and provinces, to compare with the sterilization rates.
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650.
Request for Information Disclosure
Wally Firth requested that the government release the number of vasectomies performed on Indigenous men in the Northwest Territories since 1970.
Source: Stote, Karen. “The Coercive Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 117–50. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.36.3.7280728r6479j650.
The Constitution Act of Canada
Source: Department of Justice. “Constitution Act of Canada,” 1982. Government of Canada. Accessed January 12, 2024. https://laws-lois.justice.gc.c...
Abortion Law Unconstitutional
The Supreme Court of Canada found that the abortion law infringed upon a women’s right to “life, liberty and security of person.” This violated Section 7 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and was struck down.
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. “Abortion in Canada,” February 6, 2006. Accessed January 2, 2024. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/abortion.
Bill C-43
Source: National Abortion Federation. “History of Abortion in Canada - National Abortion Federation Canada.” National Abortion Federation Canada, 2024. Accessed January 2, 2024. https://nafcanada.org/history-....
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. "Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples," January 11, 2021. Accessed January 11, 2024. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/royal-commission-on-aboriginal-peoples
Court Case against Alberta Government
Source: Ha, Tu Thanh. “Leilani Muir Made History Suing Alberta over Forced Sterilization.” The Globe and Mail, March 16, 2016. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/alberta/woman-who-made-history-suing-alberta-over-forced-sterilization-dies/article29256421/.
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Final Report
Source: The Canadian Encyclopedia. "Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples," January 11, 2021. Accessed January 11, 2024. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/royal-commission-on-aboriginal-peoples
Legal Action against the Government of Alberta
Source: CBC. “Alberta Apologizes for Forced Sterilization,” November 10, 1999. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada....
Provincial Apology
Source: CBC. “Klein Apologizes for Forced Sterilizations,” November 2, 1999. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada....
Sterilizations in Saskatchewan
Source:Boyer, Yvonne, and Judith Bartlett. “External Review: Tubal Ligation in the Saskatoon Health Region: The Lived Experience of Aboriginal Women.,” July 11, 2017.
Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement
Source: Government of Canada. "Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement." Ottawa, 2006. https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100015576/1571581687074#sect1.
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
Source: United Nations General Assembly. "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples." Resolution 61/295. Adopted on 13 September 2007. https://www.un.org/development....
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
Source: National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. "Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada,” 2024. Accessed January 11, 2024. https://nctr.ca/about/history-....
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada Final Report
Source: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada." Winnipeg: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015.
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada Calls to Action
Source: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada." Winnipeg: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015
Review on Coerced Sterilization in Saskatoon
Source: Boyer, Yvonne, and Judith Bartlett. “External Review: Tubal Ligation in the Saskatoon Health Region: The Lived Experience of Aboriginal Women.,” July 11, 2017.
Class Action Lawsuit in Saskatchewan
A class action lawsuit was initiated in October which reported that 60 Indigenous women experienced forced and coerced sterilizations at publicly funded administered hospitals in Saskatchewan.
Source: NPR. “Indigenous Women in Canada File Class-Action Suit over Forced Sterilization.” NPR, November 19, 2018. https://www.npr.org/2018/11/19....
Indigenous Women Alleging Forced and Coerced Sterilization
Source: Amnesty International. “RIDR, Briefs, Amnesty International Submission to Standing Senate Committee on Human Rights Study on Sterilization Without Consent, Submitted by Amnesty International, 5 April 2019.,” April 1, 2019.
Class Action Lawsuit in Alberta
Source: Kirkup, Kristy. “Class Action Lawsuit Proposed on Coerced Sterilization in Alberta.” CBC, December 20, 2018. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada....
7th Periodic Report of Canada
Source: UN. Committee against Torture (65th sess.:2018:Geneva). “Concluding Observations on the 7th Periodic Report of Canada: Committee against Torture.” United Nations Digital Library System, December 21, 2018. https://digitallibrary.un.org/....
United Nations Committee against Torture Response
Source: Government of Canada, Public Services and Procurement Canada, Integrated Services Branch, Government Information Services, Publishing and Depository Services. “The Scars That We Carry: Forced and Coerced Sterilization of Persons in Canada. Part II / Standing Senate Committee on Human Rights; the Honourable Salma Ataullahjan, Chair, the Honourable Wanda Thomas Bernard, Deputy Chair.: YC32-0/441-4E-PDF - Government of Canada Publications - Canada.Ca,” April 3, 2013. https://publications.gc.ca/sit....
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
Letter from Bill Casey
Source: Casey, Bill. “Understanding the Full Scope of Forced Sterilization of Women in Canada.” Standing Committee on Health, August 2, 2019.
Native Women’s Association of Canada Toolkit
Source: Native Women’s Association of Canada. “Forced Sterilization | Native Women’s Association of Canada (NWAC),” 2024. https://nwac.ca/policy/forced-....
Allegations of Forced Birth Control
Source: MacMahon, M. “Claims B.C. Indigenous girls forcibly given IUD birth control shock youth advocate,” 2021. Vancouver City News. Accessed January 12, 2024. https://vancouver.citynews.ca/...
Forced and Coerced Sterilization of Persons in Canada Report
Source: Government of Canada, Public Services and Procurement Canada, Integrated Services Branch, Government Information Services, Publishing and Depository Services. “Forced and Coerced Sterilization of Persons in Canada / Standing Senate Committee on Human Rights; the Honourable Salma Ataullahjan, Chair, the Honourable Wanda Elaine Thomas Bernard, Deputy Chair, the Honourable Nancy J. Hartling, Deputy Chair.: YC32-0/432-3E-PDF - Government of Canada Publications - Canada.Ca,” April 3, 2013. https://publications.gc.ca/sit....
First Reading of Bill S-250
Source “: Public Bill (Senate) S-250 (44-1) - First Reading - An Act to Amend the Criminal Code (Sterilization Procedures) - Parliament of Canada,” June 14, 2022. https://www.parl.ca/DocumentVi....
Persons in Canada – Part II
Source: “The Scars That We Carry: Forced and Coerced Sterilization of Persons in Canada. Part II / Standing Senate Committee on Human Rights; the Honourable Salma Ataullahjan, Chair, the Honourable Wanda Thomas Bernard, Deputy Chair.: YC32-0/441-4E-PDF - Government of Canada Publications - Canada.Ca,” April 3, 2013. https://publications.gc.ca/sit...
The Canadian Medical Association Statement
Source: Canadian Medical Association. “CMA Condemns Forced and Coerced Sterilization,” July 22, 2022. https://www.cma.ca/about-us/wh....
Quebec Report on Forced and Coerced Sterilization
Source: CSSSPNQL. “Free and Informed Consent and Imposed Sterilizations among First Nations and Inuit Women in Quebec - CSSSPNQL,” December 19, 2022. https://cssspnql.com/en/produi....
Lawsuit Against Dr. Andrew Kotaska
Source: Zingel, Avery. “Tuktoyaktuk Woman Files $6M Lawsuit Claiming N.W.T. Doctor Sterilized Her without Consent.” CBC, March 10, 2022. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada....
Second Reading of Bill S-250
Source: LEGISinfo. “S-250 (44-1) - LEGISinfo - Parliament of Canada,” April 20, 2023. https://www.parl.ca/legisinfo/....
Authorization of Class-Action Lawsuit
Trigger Warning
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